Founding of the Hennepin County Medical Society

It is said that as soon as two people with common interests come together the first thing they do is organize. A social evening did have attractions for the early physicians, but there was more serious purpose back of the founding of the Hennepin County Medical Society. The concept of organization was found in the American Medical Association which, from the time of its beginning in 1847, has clearly seen that elevation of professional standards and advancement of medical science depend on organization. In statements of the principles of medical ethics it urges that "...a physician should associate himself with medical societies and contribute his time, energy and means in order that these societies may represent the ideals of the profession."⁴ Dr. Ames was a member of the American Medical Association
in 1848.

It was on June 20, 1855,² three years before Minnesota was admitted to the Union as a state,³ and eleven years before Minneapolis was incorporated as a city - the act uniting Minneapolis and St. Anthony was approved later, on February 28, 1872³ that a small number of physicians from St. Anthony and the village of Minneapolis made medical history by organizing a medical society. This handful of men met at the small claim cabin of Dr. Alfred Elisha Ames² at Fifth Street and Ninth Avenue South, then called Rice Street.⁴ The house, according to Atwater, was the home that Dr. Ames occupied from 1852 until 1857, "...when he removed into a large, and for those times, magnificent dwelling which he erected opposite the Court House⁴." Out of this meeting at Dr. Ames' little home emerged the formation of the first county medical society in Minnesota Territory,⁵ the St. Anthony and Minneapolis Union Medical Society. Dr. Alfred E. Ames was elected first president, Dr. Charles L. Anderson vice-president, Dr. Jared D. Wheelock⁶ secretary, and Dr. Charles W. Le Boutillier⁷ treasurer. Not only was this Union Medical Society the first county medical society in the Northwest but it was also to be the largest.⁸

The events that took place in the organizational meeting at Dr. Ames' home are not entirely known. Probably a record was kept, since one of the elected officers was that of secretary, but, unfortunately, and never adequately explained, in 1889 all of the minutes of the Society were somehow lost or destroyed.⁹ Consequently, most of what took place at the original meeting is based on assumption and meager press items. From the newspaper reports we have the names of the elected officers and the name of the Society. Presumably, a constitution and by-laws were drawn up and adopted, and procedures determined for the content and frequency of the meetings. One source, quoting from Neill's History, says that meetings were held semi-monthly on "the first and third Mondays at places designated before adjournment⁷." This is in conflict, however, with statements made by Dr. Edwin Phillips, who had been a member of the Society since September, 1869.¹⁰ Dr. Phillips implied that the regular meetings were held only once a month. He states, "The Society adopted a programme consisting of essays, reports of cases, and discussions. Dr. Asa E Johnson furnished the first essay read. The methods of carrying on the Society during its primitive years were as follows: After the programme of reading and discussing the papers was carried out, the titles of the papers for the next meeting were announced, thus giving each member one month's time in which to prepare for the discussion of the papers of the next meeting, and the discussions were thorough and general. As the Society had no permanent place for meetings, they were held in the office or residence of the members. When held at the residence of some member, his wife and daughters usually invited the members, after the meeting was adjourned, to a luncheon of coffee, cake, and sandwiches."¹⁰ Dr. Phillips recalls that two of the favorite places for holding meetings were at the residences of Dr. William H. Leonard and Dr. John H. Murphy.¹⁰

The library of the Society has in its possession two copies of the Constitution and By-Laws, the earlier one dated April 18, 1892, and the later one published in 1918. Obviously, neither was the original one adopted at the Society's first meeting, although probably not differing substantially from the original. In Dr. A. E. Benjamin's presidential address, delivered January 8, 1923, he quotes from Article II of the Constitution of the Society as follows: "The object of the Society shall be the cultivation of good fellowship and scientific research among its members; the advancement of medical education, and the unity of the profession as a factor in the interests of the community."¹¹

In addition to the four officers elected at the organizational meeting of the Union Medical Society, there were four or five others who had the honor of being charter members and founders of the Society. A considerable amount of discrepancy exists among the various sources as to just who these other members were,^2,7,8,10 but most of them agree on Drs. Asa Emery Johnson,
F. C. Loewenburg (or Lowenburg) and William H. Leonard. In addition, many of the sources lists Drs. John Henry Murphy, J. A. White, and Sewingburg (probably Dr. F. C. Lowenburg was intended). Dr. A. E. Ames says that Dr. White arrived in 1853;¹³ therefore, it is reasonable to assume that he should be included among the charter members. It is certain that Dr. John H. Murphy was a charter member, though apparently he was not among that historic group which met at Dr. Ames' home on June 20, 1855; neither Atwater⁸ nor Hamilton⁷ lists his name among those present. Perhaps he was out on a call that day; a summons for medical aid sometimes required a doctor to journey on horseback a distance of up to seventy-five miles,⁸ a trip which would necessitate an absence from his office (or home) of several days.¹⁴ In light then of the best evidence we have, the list of charter members would appear to be as follows: Drs. Alfred Elisha Ames, Charles L. Anderson, Asa E. Johnson, Charles W. LeBoutil— her, William H. Leonard, F. C. Lowenburg, John Henry Murphy, Jared D. Wheelock, and J. A. White.

Since the names of several other physicians occur in the various histories of the time, there is question of why they too were not charter members. One explanation given for the omission was that a year's completed residency was required for membership, and many of the pioneer physicians were birds of passage, staying but a short time and then pushing on farther west, or establishing a practice in some other locality in the state. A second explanation was that many irregular practitioners or downright quacks had filtered their way into the ranks of reputable doctors. Because there were as yet no Boards of Medical Examiners and nothing to prevent anyone from calling himself a doctor and "setting up shop, " keeping quacks out of the profession was a difficult problem to solve. Too often, it seems, the case of John Marsh was reenacted, the John Marsh who substituted his undergraduate college degree written in Latin for an M.D. degree because he needed money and the most "convenient" occupation to adopt to obtain money "seemed to be that of physician."¹⁴ Finally, some bona fide doctors were barred on the grounds that they engaged in unethical practices such as advertising.

To return to the nine charter members, leaders in the profession and now originators of an organization upon which depended much of the future medical progress of the community, it is to our purpose to enquire who they were, where they came from, why they came, what was their background, what did they do, and what became of them?

First, all of the founding physicians were graduates of medical schools, although that qualification did not mean as much then as it does today, for in the early and middle 1800's medical education was still in its infancy. Dr. Murphy was the first of the nine to establish his practice. He received his degree of Doctor of Medicine in 1850 from Rush Medical College and began to practice in St. Anthony that same year.¹⁶ In the next year, 1851, Dr. Ames came to St. Anthony, entered into partnership with Dr. Murphy, but soon filed a claim across the river, built a cabin in which he opened an office, and moved there in 1852. He too was a graduate of Rush Medical College, having received his M.D. degree from that institution in 1845.¹⁷ In May of 1852, Dr. Charles L. Anderson came to St. Anthony to practice. In 1855 he, too, moved to the west side of the river. He had received his medical degree in 1852 from Asbury College (later named DePaw University).¹⁸ Two more of the founders came in 1853, Dr. A. E. Johnson and Dr. J. A. White. Dr. Johnson had received his M.D. degree in 1849 from the University of New York City,⁸ and Dr. White was a graduate of the Medical College of Brunswick, Maine.¹³ In October, 1854, Dr. LeBoutillier came to St. Anthony and commenced practice. Dr. LeBoutillier was a medical graduate of the University of Paris.¹³ In 1855 the names of the remaining three founders were added to the list of practicing physicians, Dr. F. C. Lowenburg in St. Anthony and Drs. W. H. Leonard and J. D. Wheelock in Minneapolis. Dr. Lowenburg obtained his medical education in Germany and was a graduate of Leipzig University.¹³ Dr. Leonard finished his medical education at the medical department of Yale College, from which he was graduated in 1853,¹⁹ and Dr. Wheelock attended lectures at Medical College at Woodstock, Vermont,²⁰ and received his diploma.

Dr. John Henry Murphy, the first regular physician to practice in village of St. Anthony, was born January 22, 1826, in New Brunswick, New Jersey, but in 1834 his family moved to Quincy, Illinois. He is said to have read medicine with a Dr. Abram B. Hull at Lewiston, Illinois. After marriage to Mary A. Hoyt he brought his bride up the Mississippi to St. Anthony in 1849 and made a start in practice. Dr. Murphy returned to Illinois for a course of lectures at Rush Medical College in Chicago for which he was awarded his diploma and returned in 1850 to St. Anthony "fully qualified." Dr. Murphy was especially interested in surgery and served in that capacity in the Civil War. He also participated in government and was elected to the House of Representatives of Minnesota Territory in 1851 and was a delegate in 1857 to the Constitutional Convention for the formation of a state government. In addition to being a charter member of the Hennepin County Medical Society (then called Union Medical Society), Dr. Murphy was a founding member of the Minnesota State Medical Association and was elected vice—president of that association. Following discharge from military service in 1863 after having suffered a sunstroke, Dr. Murphy moved to St. Paul where he practiced until his death January 31, 1894, at age 68. At the time of his death he was considered the most widely known person in the community.¹⁶ No less an authority than The Doctors Mayo records that "...Dr. John H. Murphy ... whose crude manner and untutored ways have put him in the pillory as the horrible example of pre-antiseptic surgery, but who was quite the most popular surgical consultant and the most authoritative expert for court purposes in the state ... "³⁴

The resolutions drawn up at the time of Dr. Murphy's death characterized him as "a good man, a good friend, citizen and soldier."²⁹ The obituary closed with these words: "...He was famous as an after-dinner speaker. Abroad he was the life of the company that he chanced to be in. At home he was the soul of hospitality and devoted to his family. A man of great physical endurance, he was as ready as he was strong, and was never known, whatever the bodily fatigue, or how inclement the weather, to fail in immediate response to a call of duty."²⁹

One example of his hospitality was shown while he was still a member of the Union Medical Society. "The late Dr. John H. Murphy ... gave the Society its first banquet sometime in the fifties in a small house on the corner of 6th Street and University Avenue Southeast. Notwithstanding the fact that the house was small, the banquet was immense, ...from roast turkey with cranberry sauce, down to the finest fruits of the season. The doctor having more than an ordinary stock of good sound common sense and a stock of jokes always on hand made this an event to be remembered."¹⁰ Allusions in various sources^30,16 give the impression, at least, that this banquet was a joint meeting of both the Union Medical Society and the Minnesota Medical Society of which latter organization Dr. Murphy was vice president. The event marked the end of the state society until its reorganization in 1869.^5,30

Dr. Alfred Elisha Ames was born December 14, 1814, at Colchester, Vermont, although his family later moved to Orwell, Ohio. While teaching school in 1834 he met Miss Martha Pratt, whom he married in 1836, and the couple moved to Chicago. In 1840, Dr. Ames began attending medical lectures at Rush Medical College and studied with a Dr. Maloney at Belvidere, Illinois. He graduated from Rush in 1845 as a member of the first class and practiced at Roscoe, Illinois. In 1849 he was elected a state senator. Dr. Ames left Roscoe in early October 1851, going by wagon and boat, and arrived at St Anthony, October 18, 1851.¹⁷ As the second regular physician in the village, he was a person destined to play a prominent role in the community both in medicine and civil life. A partnership with Dr. Murphy was formed a week later. Dr. Ames at once filed a claim across the river, built a cabin in which he opened an office, and move there in 1852. It was in this cabin that the nine or so doctors assembled on June 20, 1855, and formed the medical Society. Dr. Ames was elected president and until his death was successively reelected to that office each year, except for a brief stay in California in 1868. He was always a leader in medicine and was elected a vice president at the founding of the Minnesota State Medical Association in 1853. In civil life there is hardly an aspect of the developing community in which Dr. Ames did not play a prominent role. His name is associated, often as president, with groups such as the temperance society, Bible society, agricultural societies, settlers protective organization, territorial legislature, statehood groups and others. Dr. Ames died in 1874, at age 59. He has been referred to as "physician and public champion of civilization."³³

Dr. Charles L. Anderson was born in the state of Virginia on September 22, 1827. His medical training was secured at Asbury College (later named DePaw University) in Indiana, and he received his Degree of Medicine in 1852.¹⁸ Dr. Anderson started practice in St. Anthony in 1852¹³ but in 1855 moved to Minneapolis on the west side of the river. He became known as a thorough and competent physician and was elected vice president of the new Union Medical Society. He had also been chosen recording secretary of the Minnesota State Medical Society when it was organized February 1, 1853.²¹ Dr. Anderson had additional attainments in geology, entomology, and botany, and contributed many articles on these subjects to the local press.²² Mr. Henry D. Thoreau, the critic and nature writer of Massachusetts, came to Minnesota in 1861, seeking relief from tuberculosis, and during his time here botanized with Dr. Anderson. They saw "...the University of Minnesota 'set in the midst of an oak opening, 'and Minneapolis, where 'the main streets are the unaltered prairie, with bur and other oaks left standing.'"²³ Unfortunately, the "pine laden atmosphere" of Minnesota failed to cure Thoreau's tuberculosis, and in 1862 he died.²³ In 1862, Dr. Anderson moved west, staying a few years in Nevada and finally settling in Santa Cruz, California, where he reestablished medical practice and continued his scientific endeavors. On January 22, 1876, Dr. Anderson wrote the following to his Minneapolis friends, "After helping you, in my humble way, to plant the Garden of Eden, I have left you in the midst thereof and gone out of Paradise on the west side, following the river that went out of Eden..."²⁴ Dr. Anderson died in Santa Cruz December 22, 1910, at age 83.

Dr. Asa Emery Johnson was born March 16, 1825, in Bridgewater, New York, of early American stock with English and Scotch antecedents. Having a natural bent for science, he undertook a course of study of Homeopathy but was not satisfied with the scientific ideas which were taught. Dr. Johnson then entered the office of a Dr. Erastus King of Unadilla Forks, New York, or three years under an apprenticeship plan which was in common vogue at that time. He completed his professional studies by two courses of lectures at the University of the City of New York and was granted the degree of M.D.⁸ Dr. Johnson then moved west to Beloit, Wisconsin, where three years of practice failed to satisfy his ambition but gained him a life partner in Miss Hannah Russel, whom he married on March 16, 1853. Dr. Johnson had met Dr. Ames during his studies in New York, and on the advice of Dr. Ames he came St. Anthony in 1853.²⁵ Already there besides Dr. Ames were Drs. Murphy, Anderson, Kingsley, and Jodon. "At this time the entire population did not exceed eight hundred, of whom many stalwart loggers were absent during winters and springs in the prairies."⁸ Soon after settling in St. Anthony, Dr. Johnson entered into partnership with Dr. Le Boutillier and established a highly successful practice. He was particularly interested in therapeutics, being the first to introduce a liberal use of sulphate of quinia in typhoid. During a typhoid epidemic in 1881, his diary shows that only two of the one hundred twenty—six cases he treated were fatal.⁸ Dr. Johnson was also considered an able surgeon and took a special interest in disorders of the eye. His listing on his professional card as an oculist is the first instance locally of specialism as limited to one system of the body.²⁵ Dr. Johnson was not only a physician but also a geologist and botanist; at his suggestion, the Minnesota Society of Natural Sciences was organized in 1874. He was its first president and occupied that chair for many years thereafter.⁸ In respect to his erudition, Dr. Johnson was chosen to be the essayist at the first regular meeting of the Medical Society.

Dr. J. A. White was a graduate of the Medical College of Brunswick, Maine. He established practice at St. Anthony in 1853. His death occurred in 1856, at the age of 33 years.¹³ No other details of Dr. White are available. In the absence of any recorded cause of death it may be speculated that he may have been one of the many who came to be cured of tuberculosis. Dr. Ames said of him, "No man of my acquaintance gave better evidences of kindness of heart and amiability of soul than did Dr. White during his sojourn with us."¹³

Dr. Charles W. Le Boutillier was born in 1826 on the Isle of Jersey and was a medical graduate of the University of Paris.² According to one authority, "Dr. C. W. Le Boutillier was a Frenchman, highly educated, ardent, impetuous."¹³ He emigrated to America about 1850 and settled first in Iowa but in 1853 or 1854 came to St. Anthony and commenced practice. He soon became known as an honorable and skillful physician, held in high esteem by his fellow practitioners. Dr. Le Boutillier was elected treasurer of the new Medical Society. He served with distinction in the Civil War and was captured and imprisoned when he refused to leave his wounded men on the field after the battle of Bull Run. He was released and returned to Minnesota but died on April 3, 1863.¹⁷ By way of levity an amusing prank of 1857 can be told of Dr. Le Boutillier. Before moving to Minnesota he had come into possession of a small supply of gold dust and a few nuggets. The waterworks system at that time consisted of long-handled tin dippers in pails filled with water from neighboring lakes or springs (or even the Mississippi itself). Loving a practical joke, Dr. Le Boutillier and a druggists Mr. Charles W. Sims, planted some of the real gold dust and nuggets near the spring and then scattered along the bank an inferior shining metal. One day when Mr. Sims brought a fresh supply of water from the spring he showed the customers in the store some of the real gold which he said he had found near the spring. The metal was tested with nitric acid, and when it didn't "turn green" the people were convinced it was genuine and a gold rush was on. "Claims were staked, a rush was made to the hardware store for, picks, shovels, and tin pans, and within an hour about 200 men were industriously panning for gold. A few wealthy men tried to purchase lots along the river, but prices of real estate in that quarter soon became prohibitive."²⁶

Dr. William Huntington Leonard, the grandson of a physician, was one of the most prominent and interesting of the charter members. He was born on December 2, 1825, in Mansfield, Connecticut. After teaching school for six years, Dr. Leonard studied medicine under Dr. Orrin Witter of Chaplin, Connecticut. He then enrolled in the medical department of Yale University, from which university he was graduated as a "regular" physician in 1853.²⁷ He then established practice in Orangeville, New York, in 1853, but moved to Minneapolis in 1855. Dr. Leonard became known as a person of high principles and considerable medical skill, in which capacity he served the city over a long period of time. In 1859, Dr. Leonard decided to embrace the doctrines of Hahnemann and thenceforth practiced homeopathy.¹⁹ During the 19th century many homeopaths were practicing in the region, the majority of whom after additional education later became practitioners of regular medicine, but for a "regular" doctor to turn to homeopathy was most unusual. The initial meeting of the Hahnemann Medical Society of Hennepin County (homeopathic) was held in Dr. Leonard's office in 1867, and he was elected president.¹⁹ No doubt it was in recognition of his medical skill that he became health officer of the city from 1872-1875, and he was appointed to the State Board of Health in 1875.²⁷ In 1903, the homeopathic practitioners of Minneapolis honored him with a banquet on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of his entrance into the practice of medicine. Elbert Hubbard and Mark Twain both sent congratulatory telegrams. In its report of the celebration the Northwestern Lancet of Minneapolis paid tribute in noting his "silent influence for good of these fifty years."²⁷ Dr. Leonard died in Minneapolis, April 9, 1907, at age 81.²⁷

Dr. F. C. Lowenburg was born in Germany and obtained his medical education at Leipzig University. He established practice at St. Anthony in 1855. No other details of Dr. Lowenburg are available. He died in 1864.¹⁷ Dr. A. E. Ames said of him, "Dr. Loewenburg was a man of letters mild and gentle in disposition. He smoothed his mother's pillow. His friends loved him dearly for his many generous acts."¹³

Dr. Jared D. Wheelock was born September 28, 1820, in Montpelier, Vermont. After preliminary education he attended lectures at the Medical College at Woodstock, Vermont, and received his diploma. Dr. Wheelock commenced practice in 1843, first in Greensboro and later in Stowe, Vermont. He married Miss Mary Robinson of Stowe in January 18, 1845. Dr. Wheelock established practice at St. Anthony in 1855. He was chosen secretary of the new medical society. Later in the year, in December 1855, he moved to Clear— water, Minnesota, where he was the first physician in the town and also the first in Wright County. In Clearwater he engaged in farming as well as practice, and he established a reputation as a highly esteemed and skillful physician. He was the first Justice of the Peace in the township, chairman of the first Board of Supervisors, town treasurer, county commissioner, and a long time member of the School Board. During the Civil War he served as surgeon of the board of enrollment of the 2d district of Minnesota with headquarters in St. Paul. Dr. Wheelock died on September 11, 1891.^20,28

There were other names to be found in the medical history of the period. Some of these were "regular" physicians; a number of whom such as Dr. James J. Linu and Dr. Adolph Ortman, both of whom came in 1857, soon joined the Society and added their efforts and abilities toward attaining its goals.¹² "Dr. Ortman..., was later active as a city and county physician, and was one of the oldest members of the State Medical Society, of which he was made an honorary membet without dues. He was a very excellent man, notable for his high ethical standards and kindly disposition. Owing to the development of cataracts, he became blind several years before his death."³²

An example of a doctor who was not likely to be invited to become a member of the Medical Society is related by Dr. John M. Armstrong of Ramsey County. Dr. Armstrong tells us that during the Civil War a Dr. J. W. Dibbs of St. Anthony was convicted of attempting to secure fraudulent exemption of two drafted men from military services by pumping air under the skin of the chest of the men in order to simulate emphysema. Dr. Dibbs confessed and stated he had received twenty-five dollars from each of the men.³¹

There were still others who with little or no medical training beyond a "home medicine book" had decided it would be more to their liking to practice medicine than to teach school or farm or lay bricks or saw lumber. Finally, there were many deliberate quacks with no medical training, whatever whose object was to "make a killing" at the expense of the sick by traveling about the locality selling concoctions touted as being capable of curing everything from corns to consumption. Records from the Minnesota State Medical Association indicate the extent of this problem. At their annual meeting 1869 it was reported that of those practicing medicine in the state 119 were qualified practitioners and 93 unqualified.³⁰ The infant Society faced a formidable task in elevating the standards of the profession while at the time its members attempted to meet the health needs of a rapidly expand community. Quackery had to be eradicated and regulations established for allowing practice. Hospitals and medical training schools were needed and there was an urgency to disseminate new medical knowledge. Epidemics of infectious diseases such as typhoid emphasized public health needs.

The difficulties which are expected in a pioneer settlement included a lack of communication and transportation facilities. The telephone was years away. If a physician's services were needed for someone in town, a messenger would be sent to the doctor's office, by way of horseback usually, or a buggy if the doctor was to accompany the messenger back to the home. River boats came up the river as far as St. Paul beginning in the 1840's and they brought the mail. From St. Paul to St. Anthony there was only a dirt road over which rumbled a stagecoach beginning in 1849. A telegraph line reached Minneapolis in 1860 from Chicago but the telephone was not invented until 1876. The first rail line in the state ran from St. Paul to St. Anthony beginning in 1862 with the coaches and baggage car being pulled by the "William Crooks," which is still preserved. It was not until the end of the 19th century that a practical use could be made of the gasoline powered vehicle.

Dr. William Davis of St. Paul relates a graphic experience of the pre-telephone days. "Once in the early hours of a still summer morning I was awakened by the sound of a gunshot. I listened for a few moments but heard nothing more and was dropping off to sleep again when my doorbell rang and through the speaking tube I was asked to go to the house of a patient a few blocks away. Standing on the sidewalk I found a young policeman who said he had brought the call. On reaching the patient I found he had been seized with a pain so unbearable that he felt he must get relief at once. Alone in the house, with no telephone, necessity drove him to fire a shot from his pistol Out of the window to attract attention. This brought the policeman of the beat on the run, and when hailed he consented readily to go and call the doctor. Indeed my patient said that the officer's relief was apparent when he found that the shot was an innocent on."¹⁵ It was under these trying conditions that the Society's work was begun.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. American Medical Association: Principles of Medical Ethics. Chicago, American Medical Association, 1941. P. 6.

2. Shutter, Marion D. (ed.): History of Minneapolis: Gateway to the Northwest . Vol. I. Chicago—Minneapolis, The S. J. Clarke Publishing Company, 1923. pp. 492—501.

3. Ibid. pp. 660, 676.

4. Atwater, Isaac (ed.): History of the City of Minneapolis, Minnesota. New York, Munsell and Company, 1893. pp. 34, 41, 45, 47.

5. Hannues, E. M.: The Minnesota Centennial — Its Medical History. Minn. Med. 32:797, 1949. See pp. 799, 798.

6. Upham, Warren and Dunlap, Rose Barteau: Minnesota Biographies 1655—1912. Minn. His. Soc. Coil. 14:845, 1912.

7. Hamilton, Arthur S.: The Early History of Medicine in Minneapolis. Part II. Journal—Lancet 38:163, 1918. See pp. 164, 165.

8. Atwater, Isaac (ed.): History of the City of Minneapolis, Minnesota. New York, Munsell and Company, 1893. pp. 860—884.

9. Hamilton, Arthur S.: The Early History of Medicine in Minneapolis. Part I. Journal—Lancet 38:123, 1918. See p. 124.

10. Phillips, Edwin: Early Days of the Hennepin County Medical Society. Northwestern Lancet 21:381, 1901.

11. Benjamin, A. E.: The Objects and Opportunities of the Hennepin County Medical Society: The President's Address. (Presented before the Hennepin County Medical Society, January 8, 1923.) Journal-Lancet 43:101, 1923. See pp. 102, 105.

12. Hudson, Horace B. (ed.): A Half Century of Minneapolis. Minneapolis, The Hudson Publishing Company, 1908. See pp. 181, 185.

13. Ames, A. E.: A Record, August 2nd, 1870. Northwestern Med. and Surg. Jour. 1:91, 1870.

14. Armstrong, J. M.: History of Medicine in Ramsey County. Minn. Med. 21:698, 1938. See pp. 702, 699.

15. Davis, William: Medicine in Minnesota Sixty Years Ago. Minn. Med. 26:97, 1943. See p. 98.

16. Armstrong, J. M.: History of Medicine in Ramsey County. Minn. Med. 21:793, 1938. See p. 795.

17. Hamilton, A. S.: History of Medicine in Hennepin County. Minn. Med. 23:45, 1940. See pp. 49, 50.

18. Correspondence from Library of State Med. Society of Indiana at Indianapolis.

19. Atwater, Isaac (ed.): History of the City of Minneapolis, Minnesota. New York, Munsell and Company, 1893. p. 933.

20. Catlin, John J. and Rosenthal, Robert: History of Medicine in Wright County. Minn. Med. 48:965, 1965. See p. 966.

21. Armstrong, John N.: History of Medicine in Ramsey County. Minn. Med. 21:850, 1938.

22. Stevens, John H. : Personal Recollections of Minnesota and Its People and Early History of Minneapolis. Minneapolis, Minnesota, Tribune Job Printing, 1890. p. 400.

23. Newspaper clipping. Peterson, George L., staff director. When H. D. Thoreau Visited Minnesota. Minneapolis Star. Editorial page, August 20, 1962.

24. Stevens, John H.: Personal Recollections of Minnesota and Its People and Early History of Minneapolis. Minneapolis, Minnesota, Tribune Job Printing, 1890. p. 400.

25. Hamilton, A. S.: History of Medicine in Hennepin County. Minn. -Med. 22:782, 1939. See pp. 790, 786.

26. Shutter, Marion D. (ed.): History of Minneapolis: Gateway to the Northwest. Vol. I. Chicago-Minneapolis, The S. J. Clarke Publishing Company, 1923. p. 659

27. Eckman, James: Homeopathic and Eclectic Medicine in Minnesota. Minn. Ned. 24:762, 1941. See pp. 767—8.

28. Winchel, N. H. and Neill, Edward D.: History of the UPper Mississippi Valley. Minneapolis, Minneapolis Historical Company, 1881. p. 204.

29. Reports of Societies. Ramsey County Medical Society. Northwestern Lancet 14:397—8, 1894.

30. Rosenthal, Robert: One Hundred Years of Organized Medicine in Minnesota. Minn. Med. 36:323, 1953. See pp. 326, 327.

31. Armstrong, J. M.: History of Medicine in Ramsey County. Minn. Med. 22:180, 1939. See p. 186.

32. Hamilton, Arthur S.: The Early History of Medicine in Minneapolis. Part III. Journal-Lancet 38:192, 1918. See p. 195.

33. Gray, James: The University of Minnesota. Minneapolis, The University of Minnesota Press, 1951. See p. 16.

34. Clapesattle, Helen B.: The Doctors May. Minneapolis, University of
Minnesota Press, 1941. p. 121.